Lecture 20. Lecture on biological exchanges

Summary

The exchange of biodiversity has had a long and sometimes dark history, in which economic botanists and botanical gardens have played a key role. In the beginning, specific plant parts that could not be propagated - such as many spices - were traded as commodities. Then botanists began to take germplasm from one region to another, breaking monopolies and allowing commercial cultivation of key resources in colonies. Later, people were traded along with plants, and slavery became a key part of colonization. Long before the commercial exchange of biodiversity began, people and plants – including cultivated species and weeds – moved together around the world in epic migrations.

Questions for discussion:

• How can we characterize these various types and historical stages of biological exchange?
• What methodological approaches can we use to understand biological exchanges?

Basic readings:

Anonymous. 1998. A taste of adventure: the history of spices is the history of trade. The Economist 19 December.

Crosby, A.W. 1994. Germs, Seeds and Animals: Studies in Ecological History. Armonk, M.E. Sharp. Chapter 2 (pages 28 – 44) "Ecological imperialism: the overseas migration of Western Europeans as a biological phenomenon", and Chapter 9 (pages 148 – 166) "The demographic effect of American crops in Europe".

El Faiz, M. 1991. L’Aljarafe of Sevilla: an Experimental Garden for the Agronomists of Muslim Spain. Pages 139 – 152 in L. Tjon Sie Fat and E. de Jong, editors, The Authentic Garden: A Symposium on Gardens. Leiden, Clusius Foundation.

Hernandez Bermejo, E. 1991. Botanical foundations for the restoration of Spanish-Arabic gardens: study of the plant species used and their introduction during the Andalusi period. Pages 153 – 164 in L. Tjon Sie Fat and E. de Jong, editors, The Authentic Garden: A Symposium on Gardens. Leiden, Clusius Foundation.

Hobhouse, Henry 1992. Seeds of Change: Six Plants that Transformed Mankind. London, Papermac. Especially pages 53 – 116, Sugar and the Slave Trade.

There is an interesting set of readings on biological exchanges in Polynesia:

Lebot, V. 1991. Kava (Piper methysticum Forst.f.): the Polynesian dispersal of an Oceanian plant. Pages 169 – 202 in P.A. Cox and S.A. Banack, editors, Islands, Plants, and Polynesians: An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany. Portland, Dioscorides Press.

Meilleur, B.A. 1996. Forests and Polynesian Adaptations. Pages 76 – 94 in L.E. Sponsel, T.N. Headland and R.C. Bailey, editors, Tropical Deforestation: The Human Dimension. New York, Columbia University Press.

Rensch, K.H. 1991. Polynesian plant names: linguistic analysis and ethnobotany, expectations and limitations.Pages 97 – 111 in P.A. Cox and S.A. Banack, editors, Islands, Plants, and Polynesians: An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany. Portland, Dioscorides Press.

Whistler, W.A. 1991. Polynesian plant introductions. Pages 41 – 66 in P.A. Cox and S.A. Banack, editors, Islands, Plants, and Polynesians: An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnbotany. Portland, Dioscorides Press.

Yen, D.E. 1991. Polynesian cultigens and cultivars: the questions of origin. Pages 67 – 95 in P.A. Cox and S.A. Banack, editors, Islands, Plants, and Polynesians: An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany. Portland, Dioscorides Press.

Perspective for discussion:

"The geographical origin, dispersion and domestication of cultivated plants has been widely studied by botanists and agronomists. The determination of their centers of origin and diversity is something which was already dealt with in 1882 by Decandolle, although it was not rigorously studied until 1926 by Vavilov… The considerable advances in the taxonomy of floras from different parts of the world in the last two centuries have also given rise to more concise facts on the autochthonous and/or allochtohonous characters of wild or locally cultivated species. Palynology is another science which has likewise contributed to the recent advances in the evolution of regional floras. Furthermore, breakthroughs in cytogenetics and phytochemistry have led to the clarification of have even authenticated the origin and evolution of species and varieties currently being cultivated. Together with these strictly biological, genetic, phytogeographic and agronomic methods and documentary sources, the botanist can resort with the help of archaeologists, philologists and historians to the study of much wider fields of science and culture. Our figure A outlines the botanical, archaeological, historical and literary sources and establishes the phytogeographical (origin and dispersion of plants), phylogenetic (evolution … of plants), ethnobotanical (the uses given to plants throughout time) and temporal (history of mankind) criteria to be followed when interpreting these data."

From Hernandez Bermejo, E. 1991. Botanical foundations for the restoration of Spanish-Arabic gardens: study of the plant species used and their introduction during the Andalusi period.

Example:

The movement of people and plants from across the Middle East, northern Africa and southern Europe provides an excellent case study of biological exchanges. Esteban Hernandez-Bermejo, Mohamed El Faiz and other scholars have elucidated the introduction of plants to southern Spain (Andalucia) over the centuries. The following modified excerpts from Hernandez Bermejo 1991 provide a historical framework for understanding plant exchange in Andalucia:

"These multidisciplinary methods should be applied to the study of Andalusian agriculture and gardening (9th to 15th centuries) in order to correctly define the species used. We have applied these methods in collaboration with archaeologists, philologists and historians, for instance, to the study of the gardens from the town of Madinat al-Zahra’ or when interpreting Spanish-Arabic agricultural treatises."

"Foremost, it is necessary to point out the existence of the very rich wild autochthonous flora made up of trees, shrubs, perennial plants and bulbs found in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula and which may be and indeed were used in Andalusian gardens. In fact, many of these plants are already mentioned in ancient agricultural treatises."

Oriental influence through Europe

"Especially during the last 5 millenium, the Egyptians not only administered a flourishing agriculture but also dedicated themselves to the design of very unique gardens, forerunners of the Islamic ones, and to the importation of species from more oriental and southern places, like Ethiopia. They were the first to organize phytogenetic expeditions, being authentic lovers of plants. For instance, Queen Hatjepsut (from the 18th dynasty, around 1500 years BC) sent an expedition to Somalia to collect frankincense trees in order to transport tem to Thebes. Hence, a considerable part of the species and gardening know-how in the Iberian Peninsula from Phoenician, Greek, Roman and Arab colonizations come from or originated in Egypt. The data available on the species used by Egyptians is extensive thanks to the floral and plant decoration on painted walls, on jewelry, on papyrus illustrations and thanks to plant remains and plant fabrics. Many of these species were most probably introduced gradually into the western Mediterranean areas, reaching the Iberian peninsula either through Roman cultures and colonizations or directly through the commercial trade of merchants from the eastern Mediterranean (Phoenicians, Greeks)."

Spanish-Roman gardening

There is quite a bit of data available on Roman gardening and plant species used not only from archaeological remains which are still conserved (paintings, pottery, design and landscaping of their gardens) but also from the extensive literature which has survived. Virgil, Dioscorides, Strabo, Cato, Varro, Pliny and Columella devoted themselves directly or indirectly to the world of plants.

Spanish-Visigothic gardening

Although the documents and references of Spanish gardening during the centuries of Visigothic dominance is scarce, it is possible to find certain data, surprising in some cases, regarding the gradual arrival of oriential species into the Iberian Peninsula thanks to the Etymologies by Isidorus of Seville, probably written around the year 625 AD. In this encyclopedic work, a small part is dedicated to the explanation of the origin of the names of some of the most common plants, in some cases including comments on their uses and origin.

Spanish-Arabic gardening

The scientific and cultural consequences of Islamic colonization in the Iberian Peninsula, from the 8th to the 15th centuries were considerable in fields like medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture. It was a gradual process which most probably reached its cultural and creative zenith between the 10th and 11th centuries, coinciding with the political decline of the Cordovan caliphate. With regards to agriculture, there were indubitable changes in agricultural practices and in the eating habits of the Christian world with increased consumption of vegetables and fruits. In gardening, changes were observed in more refined techniques and styles, better water management, in the introduction of new species. Indeed, there is a gradual incorporation of new species together with many others already cultivated by Romans and Visigoths.

Visual aid:

Figure A. Sources for interpreting the temporal and spatial exchange of plant genetic resources (Hernandez Bermejo 1991).

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